The bow and arrow are a fascinating example of man's ingenuity. As a hunting weapon, the bow and arrow allowed man to take game from a distance. Animals living in trees and animals previously too dangerous to approach were now within striking distance of the hunting party. As a weapon of war, the bow and arrow allowed man to kill his enemy from afar, keeping them at bay and reducing the risk of loss to his own forces. The bow and arrow are found in almost every culture from the Neolithic period to the present, but only in the Japanese archipelago did the bow and arrow play such an important role in a culture's military traditions, art, and martial training.
"You are not a strong enough enemy for me, but your words are so courteous that I shall give you an arrow. Take it. It will be a great mark of honour for you in this world and also something to remember me by in the next," (Holmes 66).
Long before the sword acquired its reputation as the "soul" of the samurai, the bow and arrow were the primary weapons of the Japanese warrior class. Japanese excavations have unearthed bronze arrow heads and spear heads dating from the Jomon period (? - 8 AD). Excavations of dolmen burial mounds from the Yamato period (300 AD - 710 AD) reveal a well-armed, iron-age culture: simple self bows, arrow heads, spear heads, long swords, armor, horse muzzles and saddles made of lacquered wood (Bottomley & Hopson 9-10). This evidence illustrates the bow and arrow's inclusion in the warrior's arsenal early in the development of the Japanese culture.
Over the centuries the Japanese modified the bow for use in war, hunting, and sport. The kago hankyu were small, recurved, whalebone bows designed for use from within the cramped confines of the palanquins in which the nobles traveled; the samurai equivalent of the "derringer," (Bottomley & Hopson 169). The yokyu were small, sporting bows that shot thin, needle-nosed arrows in indoor shooting parlors called yaba during the Meji period (1868-1912) (Buchanani). Yaba were found all over Japan and were frequently combined with betting parlors. The government eventually closed down the yaba after the betting became too outrageous. Other bows in use during pre-modern Japan were the suzume-yumi (hunting bow), maru-ki (roundwood bow), shige-no-yumi (bow wound round with rattan), hoko-yumi (Tartar-shaped bow), and the azusa-yumi, a bow used by sorcerers in their incantations (Ratti & Westbrook 230).
In the tenth and early eleventh centuries the increased availability of horses progressed the role of the samurai to a mounted archer. At this time the bow was the most important weapon to, and the mark of, the samurai. The ability to use the bow was deemed so important, that the term kyusen no ie came to mean "samurai family," although its literal meaning is "bows and arrows family," (Bottomley 22).
The bow associated with the samurai was the daikyu (longbow), which ranged from seven feet four inches long to nine feet long. Slightly recurved, the upper limb of the daikyu had a larger bend than the lower limb, placing the nigiri (grip) two-thirds the way down the bow where the stress was centered. The low position of the nigiri and the shortened bottom limb allowed uma-yumi (horse archers) and the short, Japanese foot archers to utilize the powerful longbows without hindrance from the horse or the ground. In the Heian period (794-1185) the daikyu had a wooden core with bamboo strips glued on all four sides with hide or fish glue and the whole was then lacquered to protect the bow from the humidity. The power and range of the daikyu were later improved by replacing the wooden core with three or four bamboo strips glued at right angles between the bamboo back and belly (front and back strips); wood being used as a filler at the sides. The incredible stress endured by the bow during the draw put a toll on the bamboo joints and on the glue. The Japanese bowyers solved this by augmenting the joints with rattan bindings. The whole bow was then painted with black lacquer and the bindings painted with red lacquer.
The tsuru (bow string) was made from long fibers of hemp, sinew, or silk with loops at each end; usually formed by means of a timber hitch rather than being part of the string's construction. Tied onto the tsuruwa (lower loop) was the yasumetsuru (resting loop), a smaller loop used to hang the string on the bow when not in use. The nakashikake (nocking point) was a section of the string aligned with the top of the grip where the arrow was nocked and where the thumb wrapped around the string. The nakashikake was made from hemp fibers glued onto the string, rolled between two wooden blocks and strengthened by applying resin with a hemp cloth. Spare bowstrings were wound around a ring which hung from the samurai's sword scabbard.
The ya (arrow shaft) was made from mashino-dake; a thin, hard, and straight bamboo. After being cut in the winter, the mashino-dake was dried outdoors until spring and then hardened by being placed close to a fire. The joints of the mashino-dake were smoothed down and the wood polished with emery powder and water before the mashino-dake was again placed close to a fire. When cut to length, each ya typically had four joints called the hanakanofushi, ottorinofushi, nonakanofushi, and itsukenofushi. Three hawk or eagle tail feathers were used for the hane (fletching); split in two and glued onto the ya in a helix. To fly straight, each ya had to have all right-cut or all left-cut hane. The hashiriha (cock feather or running feather) faced away from the bow when the arrow was nocked, the yuzuriha was the upper hane and the tokageha was the lower hane. The motohagi (a wrap) bound the ends of the hane to the shaft, preventing them from tearing away. The hazu (nock) was made of bamboo, wood, or horn and was glued into the ya with the groove perpendicular to the hashiriha.
Yajiri (arrow heads) came in every possible shape and material, but most could be put in one of three major categories. Watakushi (barbed broadheads) were large and flat with a narrow, sharpened edge. These heads were commonly engraved with a flower pattern or sometimes a more elaborate decoration. Togari-ya were narrow, four sided heads with a square cross section named after the leaf they resembled, for example, yanagi-ba (willow-leaf shape). These heads were commonly used in war to pierce through armor. Karimata (forked arrow heads) ranged in size from a fraction of an inch to several inches across. The purpose of these arrow heads was to increase the chance of hitting the target by lengthening the width of the cutting edge. Other arrow heads included the mato-ya (blunt target arrow heads), and the hiniki-ya (screaming arrow head). The hiniki-ya had a wooden or steel perforated head shaped like a turnip that whistled when shot through the air and was primarily used for signaling.
Quivers were divided into two categories: open quivers and closed quivers. Open quivers were constructed of a light framework of bamboo with thongs twisted around the arrows to hold them securely to the frame. These quivers were used both for hunting and for war by foot soldiers. Another example of an open quiver was the standing quiver used for ceremonial archery. This quiver was shaped like an armchair with a high back and short legs. Arrows were secured with thongs to the "seat" of the quiver which was made from alternating strips of bamboo. Closed quivers, the yatsubo being the most common, carried fewer arrows than the open quivers and some archers found these quivers awkward when it was essential to launch arrows in rapid succession. However, the mounted archers preferred the yatsubo because it protected the arrows during bumpy rides as well as from the elements.
Japanese archers drew their bowstrings with their right thumb hooked on the string under the arrow, with their forefinger and middle finger holding the thumb in place, and resting the arrow on the right side of the bow away from the archer (for a right-handed archer). To protect the thumb against the tremendous pressure placed upon it during the draw, Japanese archers used leather gloves with reinforced thumbs called yugake. For target practice, the thumb of the yugake was reinforced with horn but this proved too cumbersome when one reached for their sword. Therefore, the yugake used during battle had a thumb reinforced with a layer of leather, giving both protection and flexibility. When yugake were not being used, they were kept in a decorative box of lacquered leather (Bottomley & Hopson 26).
During the Heian period the basic system of archery training was developed and refined. Male offspring of samurai were given a bamboo grass horse and a bow (Ratti & Westbrook 227). These young archers shot at the o-mato (large target), the kusajishi (deer target), and the marumono (round target). As the child grew older, he learned to combine and hone his horse-riding skills with his archery skills by playing various sports. In yabusame, illustrated later in this work, horse archers loosed arrows at small targets as their mounts galloped down a narrow lane. Sanzaku was a sport where archers shot at targets placed on posts about one meter high. The nature of tahasami is unclear, but the characters used to write the word indicate that it may have involved shooting at hand held targets (Friday 193). Another archery-related sport, kasagake, was performed within the confines of a fenced course with a shelf at its end where hung bamboo hats. Mounted archers were required to gallop full speed towards the hats and shoot at them on the approach. Samurai also practiced shooting at live targets. Inuoumono, or dog shooting, took place within a fenced coral where dogs were released, chased and shot at by mounted archers. Under the civilizing influence of Buddhism sweeping through Japan, people increasingly became repulsed by this slaughter and the samurai were forced by edict to outfit the dogs with special, padded corselets and to replace the sharpened arrow heads with large blunts (Ratti & Westbrook 228). Other favorite pastimes of the samurai were the hunting of deer, bear, boar, fish, and birds in the hills and forests. Hunting supplanted the need to fight during times of peace and a samurai son's first kill during a hunt was cause for celebration.
Duels were frequently fought between samurai archers mounted on horseback. The samurai drew up their horses and faced each other some distance apart, releasing their first arrow as they began their charge towards each other. The archers loosed their second arrow as they passed one another and shot their third arrow from rest after they had halted their mounts and turned around (Turnbull, Book of Samurai 19). Duels of this nature were usually carried out after two opposing leaders wished to settle a dead-locked battle and maintain their honor. To be successful, however, the duel did not necessitate the killing of one's antagonist.
The importance of the mounted samurai and their code of honor is evident when we observe two armies faced off for battle. Mounted archers and foot archers from one army would line up to loose a volley of hikime (screaming arrows) across the field towards their opponents. These arrows were one side's announcement to the other that they were initiating the battle. The mounted samurai from the initiating force would then charge the enemy line, loose a volley of arrows, turn around and regroup with their army. The opposing army would respond in kind. A larger group of mounted archers from the first army would make a second approach, loose, turn and regroup. Again the opposing army would respond in kind. Eventually the mounted samurai from the two armies charged and engaged each other while being followed by "arrow bearers" carrying extra quivers full of arrows for the mounted archers and foot archers during battle (Turnbull, Samurai 117).
Sometimes, seeking a worthy opponent, samurai would shout challenges to each other before the initial charges; reciting their great deeds and ancestry. Samurai usually ignored challenges from unworthy opponents. However, responding to another's challenge during the Hogen Incident of 1156, the samurai Minamoto Tametomo replied: "You are not a strong enough enemy for me, but your words are so courteous that I shall give you an arrow. Take it. It will be a great mark of honour for you in this world and also something to remember me by in the next," (Holmes 66). Samurai were equipped with a varied arrangement of arrows intended for different opponents, reserving their most decorative arrows for the enemy's highest ranked samurai. One killed with an arrow intended for someone below his station was said to have been killed by a stray arrow.
The ceremonial use of the bow and arrow developed almost simultaneously with the military use of the bow and arrow. Plucking of the bowstring and the flight of hikime (screaming arrows) welcome each of the Emperor's newborn children and dispel evil spirits or disease. The bow was used then, as now, to close sumo tournaments. In the past, a precious bow was awarded to the victorious wrestler who then performed a ceremonial dance with the bow (Ratti & Westbrook).
"The Japanese used pictures to convey stories without words," (Young).
Art, when combined with other primary sources, gives a more refined picture of the past by allowing the historian to view images common to the period under study. Pre-modern Japanese art has excellent examples of the bow and arrow, particularly from the Kamakura period (1185-1392). Most of these examples, more than 120 in my references alone, illustrate the bow and arrow's adherence to the image of the samurai; while other examples demonstrate the varied symbolism of the bow and arrow.
The bow and arrow were used primarily to symbolize war in pre-modern Japanese art. A common figure in art during the period was the warrior standing alone, arrows protruding from his armor, as he exudes an aura of defiance and honor. A perfect example is found in a 1570s print showing the wounded Asakura Yoshikage fighting to the death; his armor and his horse riddled with arrows (Turnbull, Samurai 149). An anonymous ukiuo-e print depicts a "fierce individual samurai warrior," pierced with arrows and exhausted, placing a triumphant foot on his victim's severed head (Turnbull, Book of Samurai 134). Heroic images like these appear frequently in pre-modern Japanese art, serving "to make the samurai image a romantic one, and to spread knowledge of samurai values among all classes," (Turnbull, Book of Samurai 135).
The "Birth of Honen," an illustration from the Honen Shonin Gyojo Ezu scroll of the late Kamakura period, is an excellent example of the variance of the bow and arrow's symbolism. In the background is the birth of Honen Shonin, the founder of the Jodo sect of Buddhism. In the foreground is an archer at full draw, symbolizing "a delivery as quick and as painless as the flight of his blunted arrow," (Fuller fig. 59). Close examination of the archer reveals the artist's familiarity with archery. The fingers and thumb on the archer's string-hand are clearly defined and positioned properly. The left side of the archer's jacket hangs loosely behind him, freeing the left arm (the bow arm) and torso. The archer wears a sword, a reminder that the bow and arrow were exclusively the weapons of the samurai. The archer's stance, draw, and anchor point (placement of the arrow at full draw) demonstrate an understanding of kyujutsu (study of the bow and arrow).
In Nika Byakudo (White Path Crossing Two Rivers), also from the Kamakura period, the bow and arrow symbolize something entirely different. This allegory of the Jodo sect shows a true believer crossing a white bridge to reach the Amida Buddha. On the believer's left is the river of fire, on his right is the river of greed, and behind him is the troubled world he wishes to leave which is represented by fire and the hunting of animals with the bow and arrow. Here the bow and arrow do not represent peace as in the Honen Shonin Gyojo Ezu scroll, but instead symbolize violence and anti-Buddhist practices (hunting).
"Like a heavy drop of water that decides to be free, the arrow liberates itself," (Sollier & Gyorbiro 75-76).
In 1644 Morikawa Kozan of the Yamato ryu saw the harquebus, a lightweight musket imported by European traders in the sixteenth century, gradually replace the bow as the military's main missile weapon. Recognizing the declining military significance of the bow, Morikawa reformed the orthodox teachings of his ryu to make the study of the bow and arrow a spiritual discipline. Morikawa called this discipline kyudo or "way of the bow."
Morikawa divided his kyudo curriculum into six parts: kyu-ri (logic of the bow), kyu-rei (etiquette of the bow), kyu-ho (method of using the bow), kyu-ko (making and repairing the bow), kyu-ki (mechanical analysis of the bow), and shi-mei (the four virtues that deal with the development of mind and spirit) (Draeger 173). Morikawa's students made a systematic study of all the aspects of bowmanship; moving beyond the orthodox values of kyujutsu that made tekichu shugi, or striking the target, the main part of their study.
At first, many samurai scoffed at Morikawa's efforts to develop seishin (spirit, mind, soul) through archery. These samurai concerned themselves instead with the practical use of the bow as a weapon. The bushi (warriors) diligently cultivated the ability to deliver an arrow accurately in any direction from either a mounted or dismounted position (Gilbertson 112). Some ryu did try to follow Morikawa's example, devoting more attention to rei-ho and seishin in their samurai's training. However, many warriors continued to regard the bow as a major weapon of war and not as a tool for spiritual development. Eventually the bow's obsoleteness as a weapon of war forced many ryu to change the objectives of their kyujutsu to spiritual development.
Nineteenth and twentieth century Japanese bowmen wanted to create a national standard for kyudo but the disharmony among the various styles made it almost impossible. Not until 1934 did the members of the Dai Nippon Butokukai (Great Japan Martial Virtues Association) agree to a standard comprising elements from several major styles (Draeger 174).
Before I cover the preparation and basic methods of kyudo, I should point out some minor differences between the archery tackle introduced earlier in the work and the archery tackle used by kyudo practitioners. Target arrows have small, cylindrical arrow heads with conical tips. This makes it easier to extract the arrows from the target. The kyudo practitioner uses two shooting gloves: an inner glove and an outer glove. The inner glove is made from light linen and the outer glove is made from goat skin; the thumb is reinforced with thin plaques of wood or horn. The thong on the kyudo outer glove is also longer than the shooting gloves used in battle by samurai.
Kyudo is linked with the teaching of Zen Buddhism; every movement, every action of the archer becomes part of a pattern designed to teach some metaphysical truth (Burke 211). There are five preparatory steps and eight stages (hassetsu) leading to the arrow's release. To the untrained eye, the stages appear as a series of continuous movements. However, the observer must realize that the main objective of the kyudo practitioner is to perfect each step, not to hit the bullseye; for kyudo is measured in terms of progress, not accuracy. It is believed that if each step is perfectly executed, the arrow will naturally find its mark. All kyudo students find this a long and emotionally trying journey. Nana korobi, ya oki (Seven times down, eight times up) is a Japanese proverb used by kyudo practitioners to express the ups and downs all students experience (Sollier 28).
The first preparatory step of kyudo is the stringing of the bow. The archer loops the string around the top nock, wedges the upper tip into a hole in the wall, places the string in his/her teeth and presses down on the grip while supporting the bow on the left leg. The bottom loop is twisted three times away from the archer and then strung into place. While sitting or kneeling, the archer performs the second preparatory step of putting on the inner shooting glove and then the outer shooting glove. Still kneeling, the archer slips the left arm out of the coat sleeve; deliberately pushing the left side of the coat back with the elbow and shoulder to insure that the left sleeve does not get caught in the string during the release (reminiscent of the archer in the "Birth of Honen"). The archer stands, facing the target, feet together, holding two arrows by their tips in the right hand and the bow in the left hand with both fists lightly touching the waist. The archer takes three steps forward, stands, and then turns to the right so the left shoulder faces the target. This ends the preparatory phase of kyudo.
The first of eight stages leading to the release of the arrow is called the ashibumi (to step), when the archer opens the stance to 60 degrees. In the next step, called dozukuri (setting the torso in place), the archer straightens the body and relaxes by breathing deeply from the abdomen. In stage three, yugamae (setting the bow in place), the archer holds the bow vertically in front of the body and nocks the arrow. After nocking the arrow the archer wraps the thumb around the string under the arrow and holds the thumb in place with the forefinger and middle-finger. In stage four, uchiokoshi (lifting up), the archer looks at the target for a moment, lifts the bow to the face and turns the upper body to the left to form a right angle to the target. Still holding the bow vertically, the archer raises the bow and arrow above the head, pushing the bow gently forward toward the target with the left arm while pulling slightly on the string with the right arm. In the next step, hikiwake (drawing apart), the archer's right hand draws the arrow back and downwards, anchoring the draw just behind the mouth. In stage six, kai (meeting), the archer concentrates on the form attained. In stage seven, hanare (to release), the archer looses the arrow. The kinetic energy sending the arrow forward causes the bow to spin in the archer's hand, slapping the string against the back of the forearm. In the final stage, zanshin (remaining mind), the archer remains in the position of stage seven, watching the arrow fly towards the target and waiting for the string to stop vibrating. The archer returns to stage one and repeats the steps again with the second arrow.
Novice archers loose fletchless arrows at a makiwara (training target made of straw) from five feet away. This allows students to concentrate on their posture and not worry about missing the target. Some schools teach their novices to use a yagoe (arrow voice or yell) during the release (Buchanani). This loud cry helps beginners overcome the fear of release and to prevent them from holding their breath.
Experienced archers shoot from the iba (a 12 foot high covered shooting line) down an open lane called the yamichi (path for arrows) at one of three paper targets placed on a matowaku (target frame). The kasumimato (mist target), placed 28 meters from the iba, has a diameter of 36 cm lined with black and white concentric circles; the white center being 7.2 cm in diameter. The hoshimato (star target), placed 28 meters from the iba, has a diameter of 36 cm and is all white except for the black center that is 12 cm in diameter. The o-mato (large target), placed 60 meters from the iba, has a diameter of 158 cm lined with black and white concentric circles like the kasumimato. The white center of the o-mato has a diameter of 36 cm, the entire diameter of the kasumimato target.
There are three major styles of kyudo: Ogasawara, Hegi,and Hikime or Ceremonial Style. None of my references goes into much detail about these styles and I do not wish to assume their differences. What I do know is Hikime is used during various Buddhist and Shinto rituals, usually with a whistling arrow to cleanse the area of spirits.
An examination of kyudo would not be complete without a cursory look at yabusame (archery on horseback), a modern form of Japanese archery that has kept the original goal of kyujutsu: hitting a target from horseback. Loosing arrows from a galloping horse was an important skill for the samurai; a skill seen today at annual tournaments in Kamakura and Tokyo. The yabusame course consists of a narrow, roped off path 256 meters long. Nine meters from the ropes are three wooden targets placed 37 meters, 115 meters, and 188 meters from the starting point. While the horse gallops down the path, the mounted archer looses a forked arrow at each target, which shatter under the impact. Comparing the objectives of kyudo to the objectives of yabusame, I find it amazing that two totally different approaches to archery have survived into the modern era intact. In no other culture have I seen the objectives of archery so polarized.
The bow and arrow remained the weapon of the samurai until the warrior class was abolished in the 19th century. The bow and arrow survived the centuries as a weapon of war despite the growing mystic of the sword and the introduction of gunpowder. This illustrates the respect given to the bow and arrow by the Japanese, not only in battle, but, as I have shown in this work, in the arts as well. I hope my audience has gained a new appreciation for the Japanese culture and the role the bow and arrow played in shaping it.
